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AbstractAnaerobic digestion allows farmers to create renewable energy and significantly reduce manure methane emissions. Estimates of the aggregate supply curve for carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent offsets from the adoption of anaerobic digestion (AD) were developed based upon dairy farm data collected by the National Agricultural Statistics Service/Economic Research Service Agricultural Resource and Management Survey. The estimated supply curve demonstrates how the supply of CO2 offsets from AD would be influenced by offset prices. A sensitivity analysis examines how changes in capital and operating costs, as well as energy prices, would influence the supply of offsets. Under a base set of assumptions, offset prices in excess of $15 per ton of CO2 equivalent would be required to reduce methane emissions from manure storages by 50% from 2005 levels.

© 2018 Lighting consumes a great deal of electrical energy in buildings, and the U.S. federal government is the largest single energy consumer in the United States. Therefore, the way that the U.S. federal government manages its lighting energy use is of great importance. One important way that energy use is managed is through Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) energy efficiency requirements. However, there is not much literature on how these requirements are set and how to value the resulting savings. This paper documents the methodology used to develop these for the 2017 FEMP lighting update. A methodology for calculating the total benefits is presented that goes beyond site energy saved, and includes full fuel cycle energy savings, energy cost savings, emissions offset and monetized emissions costs. The results show total benefits of $33 million USD including 475 kilotons of carbon dioxide (CO2) offset under the low compliance scenario, $104 million USD including 1494 kilotons of CO2 offset under the medium compliance scenario, and $217 million USD including 3124 kilotons of CO2 offset under the high compliance scenario.

Lighting consumes a great deal of electrical energy in buildings, and the U.S. federal government is the largest single energy consumer in the United States. Therefore, the way that the U.S. federal government manages its lighting energy use is of great importance. One important way that energy use is managed is through Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) energy efficiency requirements. However, there is not much literature on how these requirements are set and how to value the resulting savings. This paper documents the methodology used to develop these for the 2017 FEMP lighting update. A methodology for calculating the total benefits is presented that goes beyond site energy saved, and includes full fuel cycle energy savings, energy cost savings, emissions offset and monetized emissions costs. The results show total benefits of $33 million USD including 475 kilotons of carbon dioxide (CO2) offset under the low compliance scenario, $104 million USD including 1494 kilotons of CO2 offset under the medium compliance scenario, and $217 million USD including 3124 kilotons of CO2 offset under the high compliance scenario.

This paper describes and assesses a policy to slow the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the atmosphere. Policy governing new CO2 sources would either prevent emissions, procure compensating emissions reductions, or sequester emissions in sinks. The paper uses electric power plants to demonstrate the mechanics of the policy and the control or offset choices. Offset options include scrubbing, fuel switching, investments in energy conservation and efficiency, and afforestation.Costs per ton ofC02 sequestered range from $1.35 for planting shade trees to $59.41 for scrubbing. All options except scrubbing cost less than $11.00, and the median cost is around $6.00 per ton removed. Planting trees on erodible cropland in conjunction with the Conservation Reserve Program combines the goals of reduced erosion, surplus agricultural production, and greenhouse warming. This policy is a first sane step toward reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases. Having an international framework for managing emissions is most desirable. In the interim, however, the United States can demonstrate environmental leadership, generate substantial conservation benefits, and spark ingenuity in searching for alternatives, broadening the options, and lowering the ultimate costs of reducing CO2 emissions.

International offset certificates trade at lower prices than European Union Allowances (EUAs), although they are substitutes within the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) for CO2. Firms therefore had a strong incentive to use the cheaper certificates. However, a considerable number of firms did not use their allowed offset quota and, by doing so, seemingly forwent profits. While most of the literature on emissions trading evaluates the efficiency of regulation in a frictionless world, in practice firms incur costs when complying with regulation. In order to assess the relevance of managerial and information-related transaction costs, this study examines the use of international offset credits in the EU ETS. It establishes a model of firm decision under fixed entry costs and estimates the size of transaction costs rationalizing firm behavior using semi-parametric binary quantile regressions. Comparing binary quantile results with probit estimates shows that high average transaction cost result from a strongly skewed underlying distribution. I find that for most firms the bulk of transaction costs stems from participation in the EU ETS in general, rather than additional participation in the offset trade.

National commitments to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions currently fall far short of what is needed to meet the goal of the 2015 Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 1.50 C and no more than 20 C. Meeting this goal will require an estimated 45% reduction in global emissions by 2030, reaching net-zero emissions by 2050 with a continuing decline beyond that date. In response to this imperative, companies in every economic sector, along with national and regional governments, cities, universities, and investors are making their own commitments to reach net-zero emissions. Of the 1,500 companies that have made net-zero commitments, it can be assumed that a substantial number are considering purchase of carbon offsets for at least some portion of their emission reduction targets. This is consistent with the surge in demand for voluntary carbon offsets. Since the first carbon offset project in 1989, global markets for carbon offsets have become valued at more than $5 billion annually, doubling each year since 2018, and are projected to increase by as much as a factor of 15 or more by 2030 as companies and countries set ambitious goals for net-zero CO2 emissions. In parallel, carbon offsets are attracting elevated scrutiny for their role in meeting climate goals. While there has been considerable progress in establishing standards for rigorous monitoring, verification and reporting protocols, there has also been a legitimate debate regarding the role and efficacy of offsets in meeting science-based targets. For example, offsets have been criticized as not consistently delivering climate and other environmental benefits, or as providing a relatively cheap way for companies to meet "net-zero" goals, substituting for, and possibly disincentivizing core investments in operational efficiencies, renewable energy, technology innovations, or procurement of low-carbon inputs into supply chains. This paper provides an overview of key trends in carbon offset markets along with recommendations for buyers and sellers on how to participate effectively in an evolving market landscape. The focus here is on the development of exchanges and spot and futures contracts tradable on these marketplaces to generate reliable price signals and liquidity, drawing on examples from the LNG industry. While 'bundling' LNG cargoes or other commodity transactions with carbon offsets can be relatively straightforward via exchanges and spot and futures contracts, the use of carbon offsets in these types of commodity transactions are attracting elevated scrutiny regarding their contribution to meeting climate change targets.

National commitments to cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions currently fall far short of what is needed to meet the goal of the 2015 Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 1.50 C and no more than 20 C. Meeting this goal will require an estimated 45% reduction in global emissions by 2030, reaching net-zero emissions by 2050 with a continuing decline beyond that date. In response to this imperative, companies in every economic sector, along with national and regional governments, cities, universities, and investors are making their own commitments to reach net-zero emissions. Of the 1,500 companies that have made net-zero commitments, it can be assumed that a substantial number are considering purchase of carbon offsets for at least some portion of their emission reduction targets. This is consistent with the surge in demand for voluntary carbon offsets. Since the first carbon offset project in 1989, global markets for carbon offsets have become valued at more than $5 billion annually, doubling each year since 2018, and are projected to increase by as much as a factor of 15 or more by 2030 as companies and countries set ambitious goals for net-zero CO2 emissions. In parallel, carbon offsets are attracting elevated scrutiny for their role in meeting climate goals. While there has been considerable progress in establishing standards for rigorous monitoring, verification and reporting protocols, there has also been a legitimate debate regarding the role and efficacy of offsets in meeting science-based targets. For example, offsets have been criticized as not consistently delivering climate and other environmental benefits, or as providing a relatively cheap way for companies to meet "net-zero" goals, substituting for, and possibly disincentivizing core investments in operational efficiencies, renewable energy, technology innovations, or procurement of low-carbon inputs into supply chains. This paper provides an overview of key trends in carbon offset markets along with recommendations for buyers and sellers on how ...

AbstractThe elasticity of aggregate supply of cropland is one key to understanding the degree to which policy‐induced increases in demand for biofuel feedstocks or agricultural CO2 offsets will result in higher prices or expanded crop production. We report land supply elasticities for the United States and Brazil estimated directly from recent changes in planted crop acreage and estimated changes in expected returns. The resulting aggregate implied land‐use elasticities with respect to price are quite inelastic in the United States and Brazil elasticities have declined sharply in recent years. The estimated elasticities imply that current estimates of land‐based CO2 emissions from biofuels expansion may be overstated

Rising atmospheric [CO2] and associated climate change are expected to modify primary productivity across a range of ecosystems globally. Increasing aridity is predicted to reduce grassland productivity, although rising [CO2] and associated increases in plant water use efficiency may partially offset the effect of drying on growth. Difficulties arise in predicting the direction and magnitude of future changes in ecosystem productivity, due to limited field experimentation investigating climate and CO2 interactions. We use repeat near‐surface digital photography to quantify the effects of water availability and experimentally manipulated elevated [CO2] (eCO2) on understorey live foliage cover and biomass over three growing seasons in a temperate grassy woodland in south‐eastern Australia. We hypothesised that (i) understorey herbaceous productivity is dependent upon soil water availability, and (ii) that eCO2 will increase productivity, with greatest stimulation occurring under conditions of low water availability. Soil volumetric water content (VWC) determined foliage cover and growth rates over the length of the growing season (August to March), with low VWC (<0.1 m3 m−3) reducing productivity. However, eCO2 did not increase herbaceous cover and biomass over the duration of the experiment, or mitigate the effects of low water availability on understorey growth rates and cover. Our findings suggest that projected increases in aridity in temperate woodlands are likely to lead to reduced understorey productivity, with little scope for eCO2 to offset these changes. ; The EucFACE experiment is funded by the Australian Government, through the Education Investment Fund, the Department of Industry and Science and the Australian Research Council, and Western Sydney University. Funding for the cameras and data analysis was provided by Australian Research Council Discovery Grant number 130102576. The stereo camera and application development was funded by the Western Sydney University Internal Research Scheme. VRD acknowledges funding from a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RYC‐2012‐10970).

Jean-Pierre Gattuso et al. ; Free-ocean CO2 enrichment (FOCE) systems are designed to assess the impact of ocean acidification on biological communities in situ for extended periods of time (weeks to months). They overcome some of the drawbacks of laboratory experiments and field observations by enabling (1) precise control of CO2 enrichment by monitoring pH as an offset of ambient pH, (2) consideration of indirect effects such as those mediated through interspecific relationships and food webs, and (3) relatively long experiments with intact communities. Bringing perturbation experiments from the laboratory to the field is, however, extremely challenging. The main goal of this paper is to provide guidelines on the general design, engineering, and sensor options required to conduct FOCE experiments. Another goal is to introduce xFOCE, a community-led initiative to promote awareness, provide resources for in situ perturbation experiments, and build a user community. Present and existing FOCE systems are briefly described and examples of data collected presented. Future developments are also addressed as it is anticipated that the next generation of FOCE systems will include, in addition to pH, options for oxygen and/or temperature control. FOCE systems should become an important experimental approach for projecting the future response of marine ecosystems to environmental change. © Author(s) 2014. CC Attribution 3.0 License. ; The BNP Paribas Foundation is gratefully acknowledged for its support of the 2012 and 2013 xFOCE meetings and for supporting a 52 min eFOCE documentary. Additional support for the 2013 meeting was provided by the French Embassy in Washington DC. dpFOCE was supported by MBARI; cpFOCE by the Australian Research Council, the Pacific Blue Foundation, and the University of Queensland; eFOCE by the BNP Paribas Foundation, CNRS, and Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6; and swFOCE by MBARI, the Center for Solutions, and Hopkins Marine Station; antFOCE by the Australian Research Council, the Antarctic Climate and Ecosystem CRC, MBARI, the Australian Antarctic Division, and the University of Tasmania. The International Atomic Energy Agency is grateful for the support provided to its Environment Laboratories by the government of the Principality of Monaco ; Peer Reviewed

A review of recently available data on both on-road fuel economy and new car test fuel economy shows that while US on-road fuel economy has been flat for almost 15 years, major European countries and Japan have shown modest improvements in response to "voluntary" agreements on fuel economy, steadily rising fuel prices (since 2002), and to some extent shifts to smaller cars and 2nd family cars. At the same time the sales weighted average of new vehicles sold in the European Union, expressed in terms of their implied CO2 emissions, have fallen short of 2008 goals. That a significant part of the improvements in Japan are related to the growing share of mini-cars (displacement under 600 CC) suggest that technology is not the only factor that can or will yield significant and rapid energy savings and CO2 restraint in new cars. Fuel economy technology, while important, isn't the only factor that explains differenced sin tested or on-road fuel economy when comparing vehicle efficiency and transport emissions in different countries. Fuels, technology, and driver behavior also play significant roles in how much fuel is used. As long as the upward spiral of car weight and power offsets much of the impact of more efficient technology on fuel efficiency, fuel economy will not improve much in the future. And as long as the numbers of cars and the distances cars are driven keep creeping up, technology alone will have a difficult time offsetting all of these trends to lower fuel use and CO2 emissions from this important sector.

Basalts are recognized as one of the major habitats on Earth, harboring diverse and active microbial populations. Inconsistently, this living component is rarely considered in engineering operations carried out in these environments. This includes carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies that seek to offset anthropogenic CO2 emissions into the atmosphere by burying this greenhouse gas in the subsurface. Here, we show that deep ecosystems respond quickly to field operations associated with CO2 injections based on a microbiological survey of a basaltic CCS site. Acidic CO2-charged groundwater results in a marked decrease (by ~ 2.5–4) in microbial richness despite observable blooms of lithoautotrophic iron-oxidizing Betaproteobacteria and degraders of aromatic compounds, which hence impact the aquifer redox state and the carbon fate. Host-basalt dissolution releases nutrients and energy sources, which sustain the growth of autotrophic and heterotrophic species whose activities may have consequences on mineral storage. ; We are grateful to the CarbFix partners (https://www.or.is/english/carbfix-project) for the opportunity to implement this microbiological survey via access to the Hellisheidi CO2 injection pilot. We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of TOTAL, SCHLUMBERGER and the French ADEME agency along with NSF and DOE for the drilling (DOE Award Number: DE-FE0004847-PI: J. Matter, Earth Institute/Lamont). We warmly thank P. Lopez-García, D. Moreira, P. Deschamps, and C. Bachy for helpful discussions and guidance on data handling and analysis along with R.L. Moore. We thank E. Örn Þrastarson for assistance during groundwater sampling, M.C. Marinozzi, C. Lemonnier, P. Henri, and A. Michel for assistance during experiments, along with P. Bénézeth for support throughout this work. Our thanks also go to scientists from SCHLUMBERGER and TOTAL for constructive comments on the manuscript. The research leading to these results has also received funding from the French national agency ANR through the CO2FIX (ANR-08-PCO2-003-03) and the deepOASES (ANR-14-CE01-0008-01) projects, the People Programme (Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013/ under REA grant agreement no. 624382 and the Deep Life Community of the Deep Carbon Observatory funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Metagenomic sequencing was performed thanks to a DCO Census of Deep Life project. This is IPGP contribution no. 3880. ; Peer Reviewed